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N: Session 36: Trade and public policies: non-tariff measures in the 21st century Sub-theme I: Formulating new approaches to multilateral trade opening Moderator Mr Marc Bacchetta, Counsellor, Economic Research and Statistics Division (ERSD), ϲʹ Speakers Professor Robert Wolfe, School of Policy Studies, Queens University, Canada Professor Gabrielle Marceau, Senior Counsellor, Legal Affairs Division (LAD), ϲʹ; Visiting Professor, International Law, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies (IHEID) Mr Mombert Hoppe, Economist, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Department, World Bank Group Ms Gretchen Stanton, Senior Counsellor, Agriculture and Commodities Division (ACD), ϲʹ Mr Cosimo Beverelli, Economic Affairs Officer, ERSD, ϲʹ Organized by ERSD Report written by Mr Marc Bacchetta, Counsellor, ERSD, ϲʹ Mr Cosimo Beverelli, Economic Affairs Officer, ERSD, ϲʹ Wednesday 26 September 14:15 16:15 Abstract The session objective was to discuss the challenges for international cooperation raised by recent changes in the non-tariff measure (NTM) universe based on the findings of the World Trade Report 2012, which takes a fresh look at NTMs and services regulation. Public-policy measures such as technical barriers to trade (TBT) and sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures are now predominant among NTMs, reflecting the emergence of a clear trend in which NTMs are less about shielding producers from import competition and more about the attainment of a broad range of public-policy objectives. The World Trade Report 2012 examines how these changes affect the current market-access-based framework of the multilateral trading system and the challenges they pose for governance. The discussion was organized around the following four core themes: transparency private standards legal challenges regulatory convergence. 1. Presentations by the panellists (a) Mr Cosimo Beverelli, Economic Affairs Officer, ERSD, ϲʹ Mr Beverellis presentation was on the World Trade Report 2012. He began by stating that the motivation behind NTMs was changing, with public policies becoming more prevalent. Governments employ NTMs to achieve public-policy objectives such as protecting public health or the environment and addressing information asymmetries. Archetypical examples of public-policy NTMs are TBT and SPS measures and domestic regulation in services. However, NTMs can also serve a dual purpose: they may be designed or administered in ways that intentionally restrict trade even if their primary purpose is to serve a public policy. The potential for dual purpose underlies the difficulty of distinguishing between legitimate and protectionist motivations for NTMs and of identifying instances where NTMs create unnecessary trade costs. Transparency, continued Mr Beverelli, was a major issue with regard to both NTMs and services measures. Information on public policies is not as easily accessible as information on border measures. Public-policy measures are diverse and difficult to compare across countries and sectors. Their effects also depend on how they are applied. He explained that the World Trade Report 2012 examined diverse sources of data: notifications, data collected from official sources, concerns raised at the ϲʹ, disputes and business surveys. None of the available data sources provides comprehensive coverage. Some stylized facts, however, emerge: There is inconclusive evidence of a rising trend in NTM incidence over the last 20 years. There is some evidence of an upward trend in TBT and SPS measures. TBT and SPS measures are major impediment to exporters. Procedural obstacles matter. Transparency provisions in the ϲʹ agreements help address the problems raised by the opacity of NTMs but they are not sufficient. Notifications in particular do not provide adequate information on a number of NTMs. Compliance is low because of lack of incentives for governments to be transparent. The new Integrated Trade Intelligence Portal (I-TIP) will improve accessibility (and possibly quality). He believed public policies required deeper cooperation. Historically, regulation of NTMs in trade agreements addressed the problem of tariffs being replaced by NTMs. In particular, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) rules on national treatment and non-violation complaints were designed to address the policy substitution problem between tariffs and NTMs. Mr Beverelli described that global supply chains created a need for deeper forms of institutional integration to prevent distortions of trade and investment decisions along the supply chains. The increased prominence of public policies driven by consumer concerns has also created a need to develop rules to identify efficient and legitimate uses of NTMs. The SPS and TBT Agreements are post-discriminatory agreements that go in the direction of deeper integration by promoting harmonization through the use of international standards and by including the need to ensure that requirements are not unnecessarily trade-restrictive. The deeper integration approach in the SPS and TBT Agreements goes a long way towards addressing changes in the global economic environment, but it is not without problems. First, strong encouragement to follow international standards creates tensions, for example because of different national preferences. This raises the question where and how regulatory convergence should take place. Second, ϲʹ adjudicators may have to second-guess a members domestic regulatory choices in deciding whether a measure is discriminatory. Limiting the protectionist application of NTMs requires better integration of economic and legal analysis. Looking ahead, he argued that the core trade liberalization mechanism was likely to change in the direction of regulatory convergence. The ϲʹ promotes such convergence through transparency provisions, aid for trade, encouragement to embrace best practices and to adopt international standards. Existing disciplines, however, leave considerable room for the unilateral quest for public-policy objectives. The question is therefore whether the current framework strikes the right balance between the pursuit of public-policy objectives and the pursuit of gains from trade. (b) Professor Robert Wolfe, School of Policy Studies, Queens University, Canada Professor Wolfe focused on transparency and began by stating it reduced information asymmetries among governments, and between the state, economic actors and citizens. For governments, transparency and surveillance improve the implementation of existing obligations. For analysis, they provide a comprehensive picture of effects of policy. For firms, they reduce crippling uncertainties about requirements. In the ϲʹ, he explained, transparency can be defined as the degree to which trade policies and practices, and the process by which they are established, are open and predictable. This definition includes how a rule or a policy is developed domestically, published and enforced, as well as how other ϲʹ members are notified, how the notification is discussed and how the results of such discussion are published. Professor Wolfe revealed that there had been three generations of transparency since the establishment of GATT in 1947. The first generation was the right to know, which involved publication, enquiry points and notifications. Such a sunlight-as-disinfectant approach proved to be insufficient, giving rise to the second generation of transparency monitoring and surveillance, which included the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) and specific trade concerns. The third generation includes reporting and engagement since 2002, through the TBT and SPS Information Management Systems (IMS), the I-TIP and the annual World Trade Report. However, he warned that transparency exercises were plagued by data problems. For instance, formal notifications may not be accurate or complete, and real-time monitoring may be hampered by absent or late notifications. There are also some surveillance problems. Specific trade concerns in SPS and TBT have few active participants and results are not always reported. While the Agriculture Q&A process is improving, analogous process is under-developed in other committees (e.g. Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, import licensing provisions). In this regard, an umbrella database may be needed. Professor Wolfe concluded that we may be facing a transparency trilemma. The surveillance system is designed to monitor official obligations (even the TPRM serves governments first). Analysts, in turn, are interested in building a picture of economic impact, not implementation of commitments. Firms interests are only served if governments publish information at home and if all ϲʹ data is accessible in user-friendly form. (c) Professor Gabrielle Marceau, Senior Counsellor, LAD, ϲʹ; Visiting Professor, International Law, IHEID Professor Marceau explained that NTMs naturally raised a number of legal issues. In particular, their inherently dual purpose they meet a public-policy objective and they restrict trade calls for a tight legal analysis, with the main goal of avoiding protectionism. The purpose of legal analysis is to distinguish between good and bad measures, striking a balance between trade restrictions that result from legitimate policy objectives and other restrictions that have no legitimate justifications. At the heart of this approach is the need for careful legitimacy assessment of the particular policy objective linked to each specific NTM that may be challenged. Article XX of GATT contains a closed list of legitimate policy objectives (including environment, natural resources and health) that can be invoked to justify trade restrictions. ϲʹ jurisprudence has determined that when an Article XX exception is invoked by a member, and challenged by another member, the Panel ought to assess the legitimacy of such restriction. In order to do so, it is asked to balance three variables: the value at issue, the effectiveness of the chosen measure and the trade-restrictive effect of the challenged measure. This is all in light of existing less trade-restrictive alternatives that would deliver an equivalent result. With the TBT Agreement, legitimacy is now extended to the broader category of objectives and is not constrained to a closed list. In fact, a TBT restriction can be justified if it is based on any ϲʹ-related legitimate objective, and the preamble to the ϲʹ Agreement refers to sustainable development as one of them. Any objective linked to sustainable development could possibly form the regulatory basis to justify trade impediment. If ϲʹ jurisprudence has expanded the policy space for members to operationalize non-trade concerns over trade obligations, the same jurisprudence has also opened the door to non-violation compensation in favour of the member whose market access rights have diminished by the trade restrictions imposed for legitimate purposes. In conclusion, Professor Marceau stated that non-violation complaints can play a role in achieving a better balance between policy commitments and free trade. (d) Ms Gretchen Stanton, Senior Counsellor, ACD, ϲʹ Ms Stanton explained there were a variety of different kinds of private standards, but the SPS-related standards were generally categorized as individual firm schemes (Tesco Natures Choice), collective national schemes (British Retail Consortium Global Standard) or collective international schemes (GlobalGAP). She explained that developing countries in particular were concerned with the proliferation of private standards: the blurring between between official and private requirements; the fact that private standards do not comply with the disciplines negotiated in the SPS Agreement (which some consider as a circumvention); the lack of transparency; the costs of certification; and the lack of a venue to challenge the effects of these private standards. These concerns have both market access and development implications. In contrast to private standards, the SPS Agreement stipulates that governments food safety requirements should include, among others: separate food safety from quality requirements aim at consistent levels of health protection be least trade-restrictive entail no unjustified costs in testing, certification, approval be subject to ϲʹ formal dispute settlement procedures In conclusion, she outlined that Article 3 of the TBT Agreement specifically addresses the preparation, adoption and application of technical regulations by non-governmental bodies, and Article 4.1 of the TBT Agreement and Article 13 of the SPS Agreement address the responsibility of governments to take such reasonable measures as may be available to them to ensure that non-governmental bodies also respect the provisions of both agreements. However, ϲʹ members remain highly divided as to whether private standards fall within the remit of ϲʹ committees. (e) Mr Mombert Hoppe, Economist, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Department, World Bank Group In an integrating world, began Mr Hoppe, convergence of regulations allows linkages with global networks. But global standards and regulations might not always be the most appropriate for developing countries. Depending on the states needs and level of development, regulatory convergence can be done at the global, regional or domestic level. However, he cautioned that regulatory reform was complex. First, regulations aim to achieve legitimate policy objectives, but can have adverse economic impacts (particularly on small and medium-sized enterprises). Within each country, it is necessary to identify, and agree on, what the national interest is, how to achieve it with regulations and how to minimize negative effects. There is a need to shape balanced regulation, not remove it. For this, transparency, dialogue and capacity are crucial. Second, regulatory reform requires analytical capacity at all levels (government, private sector and public sector) to identify costs and benefits and to: understand current regulations and measures understand effects on the domestic economy identify and agree on broadly supported public-policy objectives compare and balance different regulatory options, including global or regional standards design effective regulations enforce regulations in the domestic economy. Third, regulatory reforms require increased coordination. It is critical to increase transparency and access to information, to improve governance through inter-ministerial consultation and to consult the private sector and other stakeholders that might be affected. Referring to a recent World Bank publication, Streamlining Non-Tariff Measures: A Toolkit for Policy Makers, Mr Hoppe said it offered a pragmatic and comprehensive approach to address the NTM agenda and to introduce the culture of Regulatory Impact Assessment in policy-making. It is designed to allow governments make informed and sound decision based on dialogue and the use of analytical tools for costbenefit analysis. 2. Questions and comments by the audience Most questions and comments related to private standards or to the findings of three recent Appellate Body Reports, which established case law on a number of key TBT issues (US Clove Cigarettes, US Tuna II, US COOL). One comment addressed the importance of private standards to enable consumers to distinguish substitute products. The positive aspects of private standards were also highlighted, and comments and questions on the TunaDolphin case highlighted the concrete implications of the ϲʹ legal framework.     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