ࡱ> q  bjbjt+t+ 4AAt]::::86Ry\hRR:JT*>\@\@\@\@\@\@\$]_d\d\#R###|>\>\##)FSP >\\lER[Ttrade policy regime: framework and objectives General Constitutional and Legal Framework: overview The only significant change in New Zealand's general constitutional and legal framework since its previous Review in 1996 is the Human Rights Amendment Act 2001. New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy whose constitution is based on a combination of formal legal documents, common law, and constitutional conventions; the current structure of Government is defined by the Constitution Act, 1986. Government consists of three branches, the unicameral Parliament, the Executive, and the Judiciary. The Crown is vested in the British monarch, represented by the Governor General. Parliament, which consists of the Crown and the House of Representatives, whose members are elected by national suffrage, enacts laws and supervises the administration of Government. Proposed legislation may be introduced in Parliament by the relevant minister or, with the exception of Money Bills, by private members. Parliament normally sits for a three-year period unless it is dissolved before that by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister. Executive authority is vested in the Executive Council or Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister. Under the Constitution Act, 1986, members of the Cabinet must be elected representatives of Parliament. The Executive Council advises the Crown on policy matters or decisions taken by Cabinet. New Zealand has an independent judiciary headed by the Chief Justice of New Zealand. Its Courts of general jurisdiction consist of, in ascending order of hierarchy, the District Courts, the High Court, the Court of Appeal, and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. In addition, there are a number of specialist courts. The Court of Appeal is the highest Court based in New Zealand. However, a further appeal may, in some cases, be sent to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The New Zealand Government is currently planning to establish a new Supreme Court, as the final appellate Court, based in New Zealand, and to end appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Development and Administration of Trade Policy Main trade laws All trade-related legislation must be enacted by Parliament. International obligations, such as ϲʹ obligations, must be implemented domestically through enabling legislation passed by Parliament. They are enforceable in New Zealand's courts only through the domestic legislation implementing New Zealand's international obligations. New Zealand's main trade and trade-related laws are listed in Table AII.1. Development and implementation of trade policy Trade policy formulation, including reviews of current policy, is carried out through public consultation and debate; the consultations solicit submissions on a wide range of topics such as the tariff, sectoral regulations, etc., from anyone interested in the issue. The main agency dealing with trade policy formulation and implementation is the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, in close cooperation with other key ministries such as the Ministry of Economic Development, which "facilitates, leads and implements the Government's vision for sustainable economic development". The Ministry of Economic Development also implements policy on trade-related issues such as tariff concessions, trade remedies, standards and conformance, competition policy, and intellectual property rights. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, interalia, works with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade to ensure market access for NewZealand's agricultural exports. New Zealand does not have any independent agencies to assess government policy. However, the extensive consultation process through which policy is formulated and reviewed ensures that there is a high level of transparency in the policy-making process. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, in developing trade policy, consults routinely with stakeholders, including business, unions, Maori, consumer representatives, local government, and other nongovernmental organizations. The purpose of these consultations is to inform interested parties of developments that may affect them and also to harness their practical experience. Other relevant government agencies may also participate in these consultations. The authorities also point out that any papers considered by Cabinet must demonstrate that effective consultation has occurred; in addition, a Regulatory Impact/Business Compliance Cost Statement must accompany any Cabinet submission proposing changes to legislation or regulations. Reviews of government policies are also carried out from time to time. The recent Review of the Centre, for example, addressed issues such as delivery of policies through improved inter-agency interaction, and the fragmentation of public services through a proliferation of agencies. The changes suggested include improved coordination and cooperation between departments and other agencies, and ways in which to tackle fragmentation in the public sector. The Government established a Change Implementation Advisory Group in April 2002 to implement the changes suggested by the Review. Trade Policy Objectives Recognizing that trade is vital to the New Zealand economy and to raising living standards of the population, successive governments have striven to reduce barriers to imports. Trade reform was initiated in the early 1980s, when New Zealand unilaterally abolished import licensing and gradually reduced its MFN tariffs from an average of around 30% to around 4% currently (Chapter III(2)(iii)). The decision to reduce tariff and non-tariff barriers unilaterally followed from similar steps taken bilaterally to implement the Australia and New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Agreement (ANZCERTA), signed in 1983, which called for a removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers between the two members. New Zealand's decision to pursue unilateral trade reform was complemented by the multilateral process under the ϲʹ and regional agreements such as APEC; New Zealand intends to meet the APEC goal of trade and investment liberalization by 2010 on a reciprocal basis. The only major change in trade policy since New Zealand's previous Review appears to have been a shift from unilateral trade liberalization towards regional and bilateral trade liberalization. New Zealand's unilateral trade liberalization policy was suspended in 1999 and a decision was made to concentrate on reciprocal trade concessions, for example through regional and bilateral free-trade agreements. Thus, since its previous Review, New Zealand has concluded a bilateral trade agreement with Singapore and has commenced negotiations with Hong Kong, China, as well as with the trilateral "Pacific three", which includes Chile and Singapore. Various aspects of the ANZCERTA have also been strengthened during the period (section (4)(iii) below). Trade Agreements and Arrangements ϲʹ Overview New Zealand provides at least MFN treatment to all Members of the ϲʹ. As a small, open economy, New Zealand believes that a rules-based multilateral trade system is important in advancing and protecting its trade interests. New Zealand is an original Member of the ϲʹ, depositing its instrument of ratification on 7 December 1994. It also signed the Fourth and Fifth Protocols to the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) (Chapter IV(4)(i)), and is a member of the Information Technology Agreement (ITA). Trade negotiations New Zealand's support for multilateral negotiations has been strengthened by the benefits that have accrued to New Zealand from the Uruguay Round, which incorporated new sectors under the ϲʹ. Nevertheless, New Zealand has been frustrated by the lack of progress made in integrating agriculture fully into the ϲʹ framework. Market access in agriculture is particularly important for New Zealand, because it accounts for a large share of merchandise exports. At the ϲʹ Ministerial Conference held in Doha, in November 2001, New Zealand reiterated its wish for "the unjustifiable discrimination against agriculture" to be dealt with decisively. In addition, New Zealand supports reform in textiles and clothing. New Zealand also stresses the need to provide better market access to developing and least developed countries; in this regard it removed all remaining tariffs on imports from least developed countries on 1 July 2001. At the Ministerial meeting in Doha, New Zealand favoured the launching of a new multilateral trade round. New Zealand's main interests in new negotiations include further liberalization of market access for agriculture, non-agricultural goods such as fisheries and forestry, and services; strengthened trade rules to guard against protectionism and unfair trade practices; and better integration of the ϲʹ with other priorities such as sustainable development. In negotiations on agricultural liberalization, which have been under way since March 2000, New Zealand, along with the Cairns Group of agricultural exporting countries, has presented proposals on market access, export restrictions and taxes, and domestic support. The proposals argue that market access in agriculture is restricted by high tariffs and other measures such as special safeguards; these measures distort world market prices for agricultural products and discourage liberalization. The proposals on market access and export restrictions call for time-bound negotiations to reduce these barriers, including a more rapid pace of liberalization to ensure access for developing, least developed, and net food importing developing countries. With regard to domestic support, the Cairns Group, proposes a reduction in and eventual elimination of all trade-distorting and production-distorting domestic support. In the services negotiations, New Zealand's position is one of, inter alia: actively encouraging liberalization of existing GATS commitments; increasing the coverage of sectors by Members in their commitments; and eliminating MFN exemptions, while keeping in mind the additional flexibility requirements of developing and least developed countries. New Zealand has also sought to engage constructively on, inter alia, transparency in negotiations, credit for autonomous liberalization undertaken by Members, and progress in the on-going discussions on disciplines for domestic regulations and an emergency safeguard mechanism. New Zealand has submitted proposals on construction and related engineering services, air transport services, education services, sporting services, and consulting services. Notifications Like all ϲʹ Members, New Zealand is expected to make regular notifications to various ϲʹ Committees regarding its trade and related policies. The status of selected notifications, as at end February 2003, is given in Table II.1. Table II.1 Status of selected notifications to the ϲʹ, 1995 to February 2003 ϲʹ AgreementDescription of requirementDocument symbol and date of most recent notificationAgricultureArticles 10 and18.2Export subsidies (outlays and quantities)G/AG/N/NZL/35, 14 November 2002Article 18.2Domestic support (DS:1)G/AG/N/NZL/33, 14 November 2002Article 18.3New or modified domestic support measures exempt from reduction (DS:2)G/AG/N/NZL/34, 14 November 2002Table II.1 (cont'd)Article 18.2Information on tariff quotas administration (MA:1)G/AG/N/NZL/1/Add. 1, 21 June 2001Article 18.2Volume of imports under tariff quotas (MA:2)G/AG/N/NZL/32, 13 November 2002Article 5Special safeguard (MA:5)G/AG/N/NZL/31, 13 November 2002Article 16.2Measures concerning the possible negative effects of the reform programme on least developed and net food importing developing countriesG/AG/N/NZL/30, 11 December 2001Anti-dumpingArticle 16.4Anti-dumping actions takenG/ADP/N/98/NZL, 7 February 2003Article 16.5Domestic procedures and authorities competent to initiate and conduct investigationsG/ADP/N/14/Add.15, 16 October 2002Article 18.5Laws and regulations (and changes thereof)G/ADP/N/1/NZL/2/Suppl.1, 6February2003GATT 1994 Article VII (Customs valuation)Laws and regulationsG/VAL/N/1/NZL/1, 28 August 1995GATT 1994 Art.XVII:4(a) Notification of products traded by state enterprisesG/STR/N/7/NZL, 27 July 2001SubsidiesArticles 25.1 to 25.6Subsidies programmesG/SCM/N/48/NZL, 13October 2000Article 25.12Notification of authorities competent to initiate and conduct investigationsG/SCM/N/18/Add.15, 16 October 2002Countervailing measuresArticle 25.11Semi-annual reportG/SCM/N/93/NZL, 10 February 2003Article 32.6Laws and regulationsG/SCM/N/1/NZL/2/Suppl.1, 6February2003SafeguardsArticle 12.6Laws and regulationsG/SG/N/1/NZL/1, 7 April 1995Article 12.5Notification and consultations on safeguard measuresG/SG/N/12/NZL/1, 17 May 2002Sanitary and phytosanitary measuresArticle 7, Annex BNotification of changes in sanitary and phytosanitary measuresG/SPS/N/NZL/162-197, 2002Technical barriers to tradeArticles 10.1 and 10.3National Enquiry PointG/TBT/ENQ/21, 29 November 2002Article 10.7Agreement reached by a Member with another country or countries on issues related to technical regulations, standards or conformity assessment proceduresG/TBT/10.7/N/27, 14 October 1999Annex 3 paragraph CStandardizing bodies having accepted or withdrawn from the Code of Good Practice for the Preparation, Adoption, and Application of StandardsG/TBT/CS/N/86, 10 December 1997Textiles and clothingArticle 3.1Restrictions maintained prior to entry into force of the ϲʹ AgreementG/TMB/N/89, 24 May 1995Article 6.1Notifications of Special Safeguard MechanismG/TMB/N/119, 15 August 1995TRIMsArticle 6.2Publications in which TRIMs may be foundG/TRIMS/N/2/Rev.10, 11December2002Article 5.1Investment measuresG/TRIMS/N/1/NZL/1, 25 May 1999Table II.1 (cont'd)TRIPSArticle 63.2Laws and regulationsIP/N/1/NZL/P/4/Add.1, 16 May 1999Article 67Contact point for technical cooperations on TRIPSIP/N/7/Rev.2, 17 September 1998Article 69Contact pointsIP/N/3/Rev.2, 22 July 1996Articles 4(d), 1.3 and 3.1Notification of international agreements related to the protection of intellectual property and which entered into force prior to the entry into force of the ϲʹ AgreementIP/N/2/NZL/1, 14 September 1995Decision of TRIPS Council (21November 1995)Checklist of issues on enforcementIP/N/6/NZL/1, 24 February 1997General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)Article III:3Enquiry points and information on service supplierS/ENQ/78/Rev.3, 18 December 2002Article V.7 (a)An economic integration or free-trade agreement that is of the type refered to in paragraph 1 of Article V of the GATSS/C/N/169, 19 September 2001Article XXVII (k)(ii)Labour mobilityS/C/N/2, 23 January 1995Source: ϲʹ documents. Disputes and consultations Since the previous Review, New Zealand has been involved in six disputes as a complainant. In addition, New Zealand participated as a third party in the context of disputes between Canada and the European Communities (Measures concerning meat and meat products, DS26); the United States and the European Communities (Definitive safeguard measures on imports of wheat gluten, DS161); and Australia and Korea (Measures affecting imports of fresh, chilled and frozen beef, DS169). Regional agreements APEC New Zealand participates in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Forum, established in 1989. The APEC policy of "open regionalism" conforms with New Zealand's approach to liberalization; as an industrialized country member, New Zealand intends to meet the trade and investment liberalization goals of APEC, on a reciprocal basis, by 2010. South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Agreement (SPARTECA) New Zealand grants duty-free access to all products from Forum Island countries, under the South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Agreement (SPARTECA), and will maintain these preferences under the recently signed PACER. Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations (PACER) The Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations was signed in August2001. It is a framework agreement that sets an outline for the future development of trade and economic relations across the region. It does not contain substantive trade liberalization provisions, but envisages a step by step trade liberalization process, starting with a subsidiary free-trade agreement in goods among Pacific Island Countries (the Pacific Island countries Trade Agreement, PICTA) and foreshadows the future negotiation of forum-wide reciprocal free-trade agreements (including Australia and NewZealand). The PACER provides that Australia and New Zealand must continue to provide individual Forum Island countries with the existing level of market access until such time as new arrangements are concluded providing equal or better market access. The agreement entered into force on 3 October 2002. Bilateral agreements ANZCERTA Australia remains New Zealand's main trade partner. Trade between the two countries has developed through the Australia and New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Agreement (ANZCERTA), which entered into force on 1 January 1983. The ANZCERTA covers all trade in goods and services; services were added to the agreement in 1988. However, as MFN tariffs in both countries are relatively low and has declined steadily, preferential access has being eroded. The agreement also contains provisions, inter alia, dealing with competition, government procurement, and antidumping. Since New Zealand's previous Review, the main changes in the ANZCERTA have involved:efforts to improve harmonization of food standards, including through the Arrangement on Food Inspection Measures (AFIM), which came into force on 1 December 1997, the Trans-Tasman Mutual Recognition Arrangement (TTMRA), which became operational on 1 May 1998, and an agreement on a Joint Food Code, which is due to come into force in December 2002; a revision to the Government Procurement Agreement; and a Memorandum of Understanding on Business Law Coordination, signed in 2000. Other important changes are: the revision of governance arrangements under the ANZFA Treaty; an Open Skies Air Services Agreement, which incorporates the 1996 Single Aviation Market arrangements; and progress on the negotiation of a bi-national agency to regulate therapeutics products. Discussions are also ongoing on the possibilities of creating a common trans-Tasman currency. The authorities also noted that the twentieth anniversary of the signing of the ANZCERTA in 2003 will provide opportunities to examine ways of further extending trans-Tasman trade and economic cooperation. New ZealandSingapore Closer Economic Partnership New Zealand and Singapore concluded a closer economic partnership agreement (CEP) on 14November 2000, which came into force on 1 January 2001. The authorities consider that outside the ANZCERTA, the CEP is the most comprehensive bilateral trade agreement signed by NewZealand. It aims to improve opportunities for trade in goods, services, and investment and includes commitments to reduce barriers in these areas as well as technical and health-related barriers between the two countries. New Zealand's current average tariff on all merchandise imports from Singapore that meet the rules of origin provided for in the agreement, including agriculture, is zero (ChapterIII(2)(iv)). Others New Zealand grants tariff preferences to Canada under the Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement, which has been in effect since 1982. The main features of the agreement remain unchanged since 1996, and New Zealand allows preferential access for Canadian imports on approximately 41% of the tariff; the average tariff rate is 1.28% compared with an MFN average of 4.1%. New Zealand also grants preferential access to some goods from the United Kingdom, although the difference between the overall MFN average tariff and that faced by goods from the UnitedKingdom is negligible (Chapter III(2)(iii)). Unilateral trade preferences New Zealand introduced its generalized system of preferences (GSP) scheme on 1January1972. The scheme has been reviewed and changed several times, most recently in 1997. All products that meet the rules of origin, unless they are included in a "negative list", are eligible for GSP treatment for a restricted list of countries. The negative list at present contains apparel, footwear, and certain motor-vehicle parts and accessories. Under the scheme, tariff preferences of up to 80% of the MFN rate are granted to developing countries and imports are duty free for least developed countries (with the exception of footwear, for which they receive no preferences, and apparel, for which they receive a small margin of preference). For some products, developing countries are granted preferences in excess of 80% of the MFN rate; for certain articles of tin and for wood pulp, for example, there is no duty. As of November 2002, 102 developing countries and 49least developed countries are beneficiaries of New Zealand's GSP scheme. In the latest review of the GSP, it was determined that with declining MFN tariffs, NewZealand's GSP scheme would soon no longer be effective. Thus, in 2001 New Zealand took the additional step of removing tariffs on all imports from least developed countries. For developing countries, preferential rates under the GSP were to be frozen on 1 July 2000 and then phased out as MFN tariffs were removed. However, a change in government in 1999 led to a decision to freeze all tariffs at their July 1999 levels and to cease further tariff reductions, except for those negotiated under reciprocal arrangements. New Zealand also maintains a graduation policy under the GSP, which ensures that once developing countries achieve a per capita income of 70% of New Zealand's per capita income, they cease to become beneficiaries under the GSP; product graduation measures based on import competitiveness were phased out on 1January1998. Some 15.5% of imports from developing countries and 15.4% of imports from least developed countries entered New Zealand under GSP preferences in the period July 2001/June2002. Foreign Investment Regime Introduction New Zealand maintains a relatively open and transparent foreign investment regime. In most sectors, foreign investment of up to 100% may be approved although legislative restrictions on foreign ownership apply to some specific New Zealand-based companies. According to the authorities, New Zealand welcomes and encourages investment from overseas and therefore maintains a minimal level of controls over "significant" investment. Significant in this context, relates to an overseas person acquiring or controlling 25% or more of: business or property worth more than $NZ50 million; land over five hectares and/or worth more than $NZ10million; land on most offshore islands; land over 0.4 hectares that includes or adjoins "sensitive" land (such as on specific islands, next to reserves, historic or heritage areas or lakes); and land over 0.2 hectares that includes or adjoins the foreshore. As a result of a recent review of government policies to encourage foreign investment, the Investment Promotion Agency (IPA) was created within Industry New Zealand and began operations on 1July 2002. The functions of the new entity are to: highlight investment opportunities; simplify and streamline investment evaluation; liaise with appropriate government agencies, service providers, and potential business partners; facilitate access to government support programmes; provide limited financial support; and provide commercial advice and market investor and industry intelligence to other government agencies, where appropriate. Initial priorities are in information and communications technology (ICT), creative, and biotechnology sectors, with support being provided to existing economic development activities in wood processing and niche manufacturing. The authorities note that the IPA will also "seek to target larger transactions that provide a meaningful contribution to the growth and development of the New Zealand economy". Legislative framework and procedures New Zealand's legislation on foreign investment comprises the Overseas Investment Act, 1973, subsequently amended by the Overseas Investment Amendment Acts of 1995 and 1998; the Overseas Investment Amendment Regulations 1995, subsequently amended by the Overseas Investment Amendment Regulations 1999; and the Overseas Investment Regulations, (No. 2), 2001. The latest amendment, the Overseas Investment Amendment Act 1998 has been in force since 1February 2002. The main changes resulting from the new law relate to investment approval for overseas persons in farm land. Under Section 14A of the Overseas Investment Amendment Act 1973, the criteria for approval of investment other than in land are unchanged. They require, inter alia: that the overseas person has relevant business experience and acumen; that they demonstrate financial commitment to the investment; and that each person having beneficial interest in the investment of over 25%, or who exercises control over the overseas person, are of good character. Under the Overseas Investment Regulations, 1995, consent must also be sought if the acquisition by overseas persons would, interalia, result in a beneficial interest of 25% or more of the securities or 25% or more of the voting power in the company, if the value of the assets of the issuer of the securities exceeds $NZ50million or if the price of the property to be acquired exceeds $NZ50million. Under the 1995 Regulations, consent must also be sought for the acquisition by an overseas person of some kinds of land. The criteria for approval of investment in land other than farm land include: that the overseas person has relevant business experience and acumen; that they demonstrate financial commitment to the investment; that each person with more than a 25% beneficial interest in the investment or who exercises control over the overseas person, is of good character; and that the investment be considered to be in the "national interest". For overseas investment in farm land, in addition to these criteria, ministers must be satisfied that the investment is in the "national interest" and will or is likely to result in "substantial and identifiable benefits". In addition, criteria for purchase of farm land also requires that the land is offered for sale on the open market to persons who are not overseas persons unless the Ministers of Finance and for Land Information waive this requirement under section 14C. Under the Fisheries Act 1983 foreign nationals require permission for obtaining fishing quotas. Most sectors are open to FDI of up to 100%, subject to the approval procedures discussed above. Restrictions on total foreign equity ownership do apply, however, to certain services, notably air services, telecommunications, and maritime services. In air services, New Zealand maintains foreign equity restrictions on airlines qualifying as a New Zealand Airline; foreign nationals are permitted to own up to 49% of national airlines, with up to 35% ownership by foreign airlines (25% by individual airlines). For telecommunications services, foreign investment is limited to 49.9% in the largest service provider, Telecom, formerly the monopoly state-owned provider of telecommunications services. In addition, at least half of the company's Board must be nationals of New Zealand. In maritime services, there are certain circumstances in which ships that are majority owned by foreigners may be registered in New Zealand. The Overseas Investment Act, 1973, is administered, under authority delegated by the Ministry of Finance and by the Minister of Land Information, by the Overseas Investment Commission, an independent body established under the Act and based at the Reserve Bank of NewZealand. Under the Overseas Investment Regulations all applications not involving investment in land and freehold "sensitive" land are handled by the Commission usually within ten working days; decisions on sensitive land applications outside the Commission's delegated authority are made by the Minister of Finance and the Minister of Land Information while the Minister of Finance and Minister of Fisheries jointly determine applications under Sections 56 and 57 of the Fisheries Act, 1996. According to the Commission, approximately 30% of applications for acquisition of land are decided by the Ministers while the rest are decided by the Commission. In addition to its main function of processing applications by foreign investors, the Commission monitors overseas investment in NewZealand and compliance with any conditions attached to approved investments. The Commission also administers sections 56 and 57 of the Fisheries Act 1996, which relate to the issuing of fishing quotas. New Zealand does not provide any tax or other incentives solely to foreign investors. Since its previous Trade Policy Review, New Zealand has signed bilateral investment agreements with Argentina (27 August 1999) and Chile (22 July 1999); these are not yet in force. New Zealand has signed new avoidance of double taxation agreements with Chinese Taipei (in force since 15 December 1997); Thailand (in force since 14 December 1998); Russia; and South Africa (not yet in force). In addition, New Zealand has updated agreements with India (in force since 9 January 1997); Korea (in force since 10 October 1997); the Philippines (not in force); and China (signed on 7October 1997).  The Act represents a change to New Zealand's general constitutional framework, although it does not have a direct impact on trade policy.  Sections 17 and 18 of the Constitution Act 1986. Parliament is also required to convene not less than six weeks from the date at which election returns were announced (Article 19).  In exceptional circumstances, a non-member may be appointed and may hold office for up to 40 days if that person was a candidate at the previous general election; or where a minister ceases to be member of Parliament (for 28 days) (Article 6).  These determine proceedings at first instance on matters such as employment, family, environment and Maori land law. Further details are given in ϲʹ (1996).  The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was formally established by the United Kingdom Judicial Committee Act in 1833 to determine appeals from British Colonial Courts and certain United Kingdom bodies. The judges are senior United Kingdom judges and some judges of the Superior Courts in the Commonwealth, which continue to use the Judicial Committee (Courts of New Zealand [Online]. Available at: www.courts.govt.nz/courts/high_court.html [6 June 2002]).  New Zealand is currently consulting on tariff reform. An invitation to participate in the consultation process was announced on 28 February 2002. Ministry of Economic Development online information. Available at: http://www.med.govt.nz/buslt/tariffs/media/20020228.html [13 June 2002].  Ministry of Economic Development (undated).  Government of New Zealand (2002a).  New Zealand Institute of Economic Research (1999).  International treaties are ratified by the Government and then tabled in Parliament.  ϲʹ document WT/MIN(01)/ST/33, 10 November 2001.  See for example, Prime Minister's Statement to Parliament Part I [Online]. Available at: http://www.executive.govt.nz/speech.cfm?speechralph=33612&SR=1 [12 June 2002]; and Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (undated a).  Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (undated b).  The other members of the Cairns Group are: Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Fiji, Guatemala, Indonesia, Malaysia, Paraguay, Philippines, South Africa, Thailand, and Uruguay.  ϲʹ documents G/AG/NG/W/54, 10 November 2000 and G/AG/NG/W/93, 21 December 2000. See also statement by New Zealand at the Seventh Special Session of the Committee on Agriculture, 2628March 2001 (ϲʹ document G/AG/NG/W/153, 4 April 2001).  ϲʹ document G/AG/NG/W/35, 22 September 2000.  ϲʹ document S/CSS/W/90, 26 June 2001.  ϲʹ documents S/CSS/W/91, S/CSS/W/92, S/CSS/W/93, and S/CSS/W/94, all dated 26June2001; and S/CSS/W/119, 6 November 2001.  Against Hungary (DS35), the European Communities (DS72), India (DS93), Canada (DS113), and the United States (DS177 and DS258).  The other APEC members are: Australia; Brunei Darussalam; Canada; Chile; China; Hong Kong China; Indonesia; Japan; Korea; Malaysia; Mexico; Papua New Guinea; Peru; the Philippines; Russia; Singapore; Chinese Taipei; Thailand; United States; and Viet Nam.  The Forum Island countries are: the Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.  Its members are Australia, the Forum Island countries, and New Zealand.  ϲʹ document WT/REG111/R/B/2, 13 May 2002.  This is one of the issues currently being discussed by the Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Select Committee of the New Zealand Parliament. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade online information. Available at: http://www.mft.govt.nz/foreign/regions/ australia/fadtc.html [5 June 2002].  Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2002).  A number of countries were also "graduated" from the scheme between 1995 and 1998.  The exclusion of these products was made for "industry assistance reasons" (UNCTAD, 1999).  New Zealand follows the United Nations definition of least developed countries, i.e. countries with a maximum per capita income of US$400 per annum. Least developed countries have been beneficiaries of NewZealand's GSP since 1985.  UNCTAD (1999).  The percentage is relatively low because the majority of imports from these sources enter duty free under MFN rates or MFN concessions. Thus, only 0.66% and 15.16% of imports from least developed and developing countries, respectively, are subject to duty.  Overseas Investment Commission (2002a).  The new agency includes the investment operations carried out by Trade New Zealand's Investment New Zealand Group and Industry New Zealand's Major Investment Service.  An overseas person is defined as: any person who is not a citizen of or not ordinarily resident in New Zealand; any company or body corporate incorporated outside New Zealand or a subsidiary of any company or body corporate incorporated outside New Zealand; any company incorporated in new Zealand in which 25% or more of any class of shares is held by an overseas person or if the person has the right to exercise or control the exercise of 25% or more of the voting power of the company; and any nominee (including citizens of New Zealand) of an overseas person.  An additional requirement is that they must not be the kind of person referred to in Section 7(1) of the Immigration Act, 1987.  Part II, Section 5 of the Overseas Investment Regulations.  As defined in the First Schedule of the Regulations, this includes: land over five hectares; all islands except for certain islands under Part 2 of Schedule 1, where consent is required for land over 0.4 hectares; areas adjoining the foreshore exceeding 0.2 hectares; any area adjoining a lake whose bed exceeds 8 hectares and areas held for conservation, historic or heritage purposes, where consent is required for the purchase of land above 0.4 hectares; land belonging to the Chatham Islands; and any land whose value exceeds $NZ10million.  To determine whether the investment is in the national interest the ministers must consider whether it will or is likely to result in job creation, transfer of technology or business skills, development of new export markets, productivity improvements, and increased processing.  Permission may be granted under Section 57(3) only if the individuals involved are of good character and if granting the permit is in the national interest; see also ϲʹ (1996).  Furthermore, any investor, whether foreign or a national of New Zealand must obtain permission from the Treasurer (Kiwi Shareholder) and the Telecom Company Board in order to hold more than 10% of the company's shares.  A foreign-owned vessel may be registered in New Zealand if it is leased under a bare charter (that is, New Zealand operator and crew) provided that consent is given by the owner and foreign registry.  The Treasury is the primary policy adviser to the Government on FDI and since 1996 the Treasurer has been responsible for FDI policy. This responsibility is shared with the Minister of Land in the case of FDI concerning land; for all decisions regarding the fishing quota, the responsible authority is the Minister of Fisheries (Overseas Investment Commission, 2002b).  Overseas Investment Commission (2002b). WT/TPR/S/115 Trade Policy Review Page  PAGE 22 New Zealand WT/TPR/S/115 Page  PAGE 23 Page II. 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